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What Role Did Religion Play in the Arts of Gupta India

Written By terça-feira, 26 de abril de 2022 Add Comment Edit

Aspect of history

The history of Bengal is intertwined with the history of the broader Indian subcontinent and the surrounding regions of South Asia and Southeast Asia. Information technology includes mod-day People's republic of bangladesh and the Indian states of Westward Bengal and Assam's Karimganj district, located in the eastern function of the Indian subcontinent, at the apex of the Bay of Bengal and dominated by the fertile Ganges delta. The region was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Gangaridai, a powerful kingdom whose state of war elephant forces led the withdrawal of Alexander the Bang-up from India. Some historians accept identified Gangaridai with other parts of India. The Ganges and the Brahmaputra rivers human action equally a geographic mark of the region, but likewise connects the region to the broader Indian subcontinent.[1] Bengal, at times, has played an of import role in the history of the Indian subcontinent.

The area's early on history featured a succession of Indian empires, internal squabbling, and a tussle between Hinduism and Buddhism for dominance. Ancient Bengal was the site of several major Janapadas (kingdoms), while the earliest cities date back to the Vedic period. A thalassocracy and an entrepôt of the historic Silk Road,[one] ancient Bengal had strong trade links with Persia, Arabia and the Mediterranean that focused on its lucrative cotton wool muslin textiles.[2] The region was a function of several ancient pan-Indian empires, including the Mauryans and Guptas. It was likewise a breastwork of regional kingdoms. The citadel of Gauda served as uppercase of the Gauda Kingdom, the Buddhist Pala Empire (eighth to 11th century) and Sena Empire (11th–12th century). This era saw the development of Bengali language, script, literature, music, art and architecture.

The Muslim conquest of the Indian subcontinent captivated Bengal into the medieval Islamic and Persianate worlds.[3] Betwixt the 1204 and 1352, Bengal was a province of the Delhi Sultanate.[iv] This era saw the introduction of the taka as budgetary currency, which has endured into the modernistic era. An independent Bengal Sultanate was formed in 1352 and ruled the region for two centuries, during which a distinct form of Islam based on Sufism and the Bengali language emerged and the region was known equally a major trading nation in the world.[5] [six] The ruling elite also turned Bengal into the easternmost oasis of Indo-Persian culture.[3] The Sultans exerted influence in the Arakan region of Southeast Asia, where Buddhist kings copied the sultanate's governance, currency and mode. A relationship with Ming Cathay flourished under the sultanate.[7]

The Bengal Sultanate was notable for its Hindu aristocracy, including the rise of Raja Ganesha and his son Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah equally usurpers. Hindus served in the royal assistants as prime ministers and poets. Under the patronage of Sultans similar Alauddin Hussain Shah, Bengali literature began replacing the strong influence of Sanskrit in the region. Hindu principalities included the Kingdom of Mallabhum, Kingdom of Bhurshut and Kingdom of Tripura; and the realm of powerful Hindu Rajas such every bit Pratapaditya, Kedar Ray and Raja Sitaram Ray.[8]

Following the refuse of the sultanate, Bengal came under the suzerainty of the Mughal Empire, every bit its wealthiest province. Under the Mughals, Bengal Subah generated almost 50% of the empire'south gross domestic product (GDP) and 12% of the world's GDP.[nine] [ten] [ unreliable source? ] The region was globally prominent in industries such equally textile manufacturing and shipbuilding,[11] with the uppercase Dhaka having a population exceeding a million people[9] and being more wealthy than all European empires.[12] Its wealth and economic developments are believed to take waved the period of proto-industrialization.[13]

The gradual refuse of the Mughal Empire led to quasi-independent states under the Nawabs of Bengal, subsequent to the Maratha invasions of Bengal, and finally the conquest by the British East India Visitor.

The Due east India Company took control of the region from the late 18th century. The company consolidated their hold on the region following the battles of Battle of Plassey in 1757 and Battle of Buxar in 1764 and by 1793 took consummate control of the region. Capital letter amassed from Bengal by the East India Visitor was invested in various industries such equally textile manufacturing in Smashing Britain during the initial stages of the Industrial Revolution.[14] [xv] [16] [17] Company policies in Bengal as well led to the deindustrialization of the Bengali textile industry during Company rule.[xiv] [xv] [16] Kolkata (or Calcutta) served for many years every bit the capital of British controlled territories in Bharat. The early on and prolonged exposure to the British colonial administration resulted in the expansion of Western-style instruction, culminating in evolution of scientific discipline, institutional instruction, and social reforms in the region, including what became known as the Bengali Renaissance. A hotbed of the Indian independence move through the early 20th century, Bengal was partitioned during India'southward independence in 1947 along religious lines into two split entities: W Bengal—a state of India—and East Bengal—a part of the newly created Rule of Pakistan that later became the contained nation of People's republic of bangladesh in 1971.

Etymology [edit]

The exact origin of the word Bangla is unknown, though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang/Banga that settled in the area around the year thou BCE.[18] [19] Other accounts speculate that the name is derived from Venga (Bôngo), which came from the Austric give-and-take "Bonga" meaning the Sun-god. According to the Mahabharata, the Puranas and the Harivamsha, Vanga was one of the adopted sons of King Vali who founded the Vanga Kingdom. It was either under Magadh or under Kalinga Rules except few years under Pals. The earliest reference to "Vangala" (Bôngal) has been traced in the Nesari plates (805 CE) of Rashtrakuta Govinda III which speak of Dharmapala as the king of Vangala. The records of Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty, who invaded Bengal in the 11th century, use the term Vangaladesa.[20] [21] [22]

The term Bangalah is one of the precursors to the modern terms Bengal and Bangla.[23] [24] [25] Bangalah was the most widely used term for Bengal during the medieval and early modern periods. The Sultan of Bengal was styled every bit the Shah of Bangalah. The Mughal province of Bengal was termed Subah-i-Bangalah. An interesting theory of the origin of the proper name is provided by Abu'50-Fazl in his Ain-i-Akbari. According to him, "[T]he original name of Bengal was Bung, and the suffix "al" came to exist added to information technology from the fact that the aboriginal rajahs of this state raised mounds of earth 10 feet high and 20 in breadth in lowlands at the foot of the hills which were chosen "al". From this suffix added to the Hurl, the proper name Bengal arose and gained currency".[26]

Ancient and classical Bengal [edit]

Prehistory to Iron Age [edit]

Remnants of the city wall in Mahasthangarh, one of the oldest urban settlements in Bengal

Stone Age tools found in the region bespeak human home for over 20,000 years.[27] Remnants of Copper Age settlements, including pit dwellings, engagement dorsum 4,000 years.[27] Bengal was settled past Austroasiatics, Tibeto-Burmans, Dravidians and Indo-Aryans in consecutive waves of migration.[eighteen] [27] Archaeological evidence confirms that by the 2nd millennium BCE, the Bengal delta was inhabited by rice-cultivating communities, with people living in systemically-aligned housing and producing pottery.[28] Rivers such as the Ganges and Brahmaputra were used for send while maritime trade flourished in the Bay of Bengal.[28]

The Iron Age saw the development of coinage, metal weapons, agronomics and irrigation.[28] Big urban settlements formed in the middle of the first millennium BCE,[29] when the Northern Black Polished Ware culture dominated the northern part of Indian subcontinent.[xxx] Alexander Cunningham, the founder of the Archaeological Survey of India, identified the archaeological site of Mahasthangarh as the upper-case letter of the Pundra Kingdom mentioned in the Rigveda.[31] [32]

Early literary and geographic accounts [edit]

The ancient Bengal region features prominently in legendary history of India, Sri Lanka, Siam, Indonesia, Cambodia, Burma, Nepal, Tibet, China and Malaya. According to the Indian ballsy Mahabharata, the Vanga Kingdom was located in Bengal. Vanga was described every bit a thalassocracy with colonies in Southeast Asia. According to Sri Lankan history, the showtime rex of Sri Lanka was Prince Vijaya who led a fleet from India to conquer the island of Lanka. Prince Vijaya'southward bequeathed dwelling house was Bengal.[33]

In the Greco-Roman world, accounts of the Gangaridai Kingdom are considered by historians to have referred to Bengal. At the time of Alexander the Slap-up'southward invasion of Bharat, the commonage might of the Gangaridai and the Nanda Empire (Bihar) deterred the Greek army. The Gangaridai army was stated to have a state of war elephant cavalry of 6000 elephants.[34] The archaeological sites of Wari-Bateshwar and Chandraketugarh are linked to the Gangaridai kingdom. In Ptolemy's world map, the emporium of Sounagoura (Sonargaon) was located in Bengal.[35] Roman geographers as well noted the beingness of a large natural harbour in southeastern Bengal, corresponding to the present-mean solar day Chittagong region.[36]

Jain, Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms [edit]

Ancient Bengal was often divided between diverse kingdoms. At times, the region was unified into a single realm; while it was also ruled by pan-Indian empires.

Geopolitical divisions [edit]

A map showing some of the aboriginal geopolitical divisions in Bengal

The following tabular array lists the geopolitical divisions of ancient Bengal. The table includes a list of corresponding modern regions, which formed the core areas of the geopolitical units. The territories of the geopolitical divisions expanded and receded through the centuries.

Aboriginal region Mod region
Pundravardhana Rajshahi Division and Rangpur Sectionalisation in Bangladesh; Malda partitioning of West Bengal in Republic of india
Vanga Khulna Division and Barisal Division in Bangladesh; Presidency segmentation and Medinipur segmentation of West Bengal in Republic of india
Tirabhukti Mithila area of India and Nepal
Suhma Burdwan sectionalisation, Medinipur division and Presidency division of Westward Bengal in India
Radha Location unclear; probable location in West Bengal of Bharat
Samatata Dhaka Division, Barisal Division and Chittagong Division in Bangladesh
Harikela Sylhet Partitioning, Chittagong Division, Dhaka Division and Barisal Partition in People's republic of bangladesh
Pragjyotisa Karimganj district of Barak Valley region of Assam in Republic of india; Sylhet Partition and Dhaka Sectionalisation in People's republic of bangladesh

Indian empires [edit]

Mauryan Empire [edit]

The Mauryan Empire unified well-nigh of the Indian subcontinent into ane state for the first time and was ane of the largest empires in subcontinental history.[37] The empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya. Under Mauryan rule, the economic system benefited from the cosmos of a single efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The reign of Ashoka ushered an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and of knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya'southward comprehend of Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka'due south embrace of Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across the subcontinent. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist missionaries to various parts of Asia.[38] The Mauryans built the Grand Trunk Route, ane of Asia's oldest and longest major roads connecting the Indian subcontinent with Cardinal Asia.[39]

Gupta Empire [edit]

The Gupta Empire is regarded as a golden age in subcontinental history. Information technology was marked past extensive scientific and cultural advancements that crystallised the elements of what is mostly known as Hindu culture.[twoscore] The Hindu numeral system, a positional numeral arrangement, originated during Gupta rule and was subsequently transmitted to the Westward through the Arabs. Early Hindu numerals had only 9 symbols, until 600 to 800 CE, when a symbol for naught was developed for the numeral system.[41] The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavours in the empire.[42]

Bengal was an important province of the Gupta Empire. The discovery of Gupta era coins across Bengal point to a monetised economic system.[43]

Magadha and Bengal [edit]

Ancient Bengal was often ruled by dynasties based in the Magadha region, such as the Shunga dynasty.

Local dynasties [edit]

Gauda kingdom [edit]

King Shashanka is considered past some scholars to exist the pioneering rex of a unified Bengali land. Shashanka established a kingdom in the citadel of Gauda. His reign lasted between 590 and 625. The Bengali agenda traces its origin to Shashanka's reign.

Varman dynasty [edit]

The Varman dynasty of Kamarupa ruled North Bengal and the Sylhet region. The area was a melting pot of the Bengali-Assamese languages.

Khadga dynasty [edit]

The Khadga dynasty was a Buddhist dynasty of eastern Bengal. Ane of the legacies of the dynasty is its gold coinage inscribed with the names of rulers such every bit Rajabhata.

Pala Empire [edit]

The ruins of the Somapura Mahavihara, in one case the largest monastery in the Indian subcontinent and now a UNESCO World Heritage Site

The Pala Empire (750–1120) was a Bengali empire and the last Buddhist purple power on the Indian subcontinent. The proper noun Pala (Bengali: পাল) means protector and was used every bit an ending to the names of all Pala monarchs. The Palas were followers of the Mahayana and Vajrayana schools of Buddhism. Gopala I (750–770) was its first ruler. He came to power in 750 through an election by chieftains in Gauḍa. Gopala reigned from about 750–770 and consolidated his position by extending his control over all of Bengal.

The Pala dynasty lasted for 4 centuries and ushered in a catamenia of stability and prosperity in Bengal. They created many temples and works of art as well every bit supported the of import ancient higher-learning institutions of Nalanda and Vikramashila. The Somapura Mahavihara congenital by Emperor Dharmapala is the greatest Buddhist monastery in the Indian subcontinent.

The empire reached its meridian under Emperor Dharmapala (770–810) and Devapala (810–850). Dharmapala extended the empire into the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent. According to Pala copperplate inscriptions, his successor Devapala exterminated the Utkalas, invade the Kamarupa Kingdom of Assam, shattered the pride of the Huna people and humbled the lords of Gurjara-Pratihara and the Rashtrakuta dynasty.

The death of Devapala in 850 ended the period of ascendancy of the Pala dynasty and several independent dynasties and kingdoms emerged during this fourth dimension. Nonetheless, Mahipala rejuvenated the reign of the Palas. He recovered control over all of Bengal and expanded the empire. He survived the invasions of Rajendra Chola I and the Chalukya dynasty. After Mahipala I the Pala dynasty once again saw its refuse until Ramapala (1077–1130), the last smashing ruler of the dynasty, managed to retrieve the position of the dynasty to some extent. He crushed the Varendra Rebellion and tried to extend his empire further to Kamarupa, Odisha and northern India. In his endeavour to conquer the Utkala and Koshala, parts of Odisha today, he had to contest with the mighty Ganga king Anangabhima Chodaganga Deva. Somewhen Anangabhimadeva defeated Ramapala and united the regions of Trikalinga (Utkala, Koshala and Kalinga) into a major empire famous in history equally the Eastern Ganga empire of Kalinga. While Anangabhimadeva defeated the Palas successively and counquered southern Bengal, he had to face stiffer opposition in the south from the smashing Chola ruler, Kulothunga Chola I. The river Hooghly became the northern boundary of the Odishan kingdom.

The Pala flow is regarded equally i of Bengal's golden ages. It was the largest Bengali empire that was known to ancient and classical India. The Palas were responsible for the introduction of Mahayana Buddhism in Tibet, Kingdom of bhutan and Burma. It was during the Pala menstruum Bengal became the main center of Buddhist too as secular learning. Nalanda, Vikramashila and Somapura Mahavihara flourished and prospered under the patronage of the Pala rulers. Dharmapala and Devapala were two great patrons of Buddhism, secular teaching and culture.

The Palas also had extensive merchandise likewise as influence in Southeast Asia. This tin can be seen in the sculptures and architectural fashion of the Sailendra (present-day Malay Peninsula, Coffee and Sumatra). However, the economic system of Bengal became more than dependent on agriculture. Importance of merchant and financial classes declined. While the monarchs were Buddhists, land grants to Brahmin agriculturalists was common.[44]

The life of Buddha depicted in a Pala-era ringlet. The script used in the whorl is an antecedent of the Bengali language.

Chandra dynasty [edit]

The archaeological site of Mainamati was a religious center used past the Chandra dynasty

The Chandra dynasty ruled southeastern Bengal and Arakan between the 10th and 11th centuries CE.[45] The dynasty was powerful enough to withstand the Pala Empire to the northwest. The Chandra kingdom covered the Harikela region, which was known as the Kingdom of Ruhmi to Arab traders.[46] The dynasty's realm was a bridge betwixt Republic of india and Southeast Asia. During this period, the port of Chittagong developed cyberbanking and shipping industries.[47] The last ruler of the Chandra Dynasty, Govindachandra, was defeated by the southward Indian Emperor Rajendra Chola I of the maritime Chola dynasty in the 11th century.[48]

Sena dynasty [edit]

A sculpture of the Hindu deity Vishnu from the Sena menstruation

The Pala dynasty was replaced by the resurgent Hindu Sena dynasty which hailed from south Bharat; they and their feudatories are referred to in history books every bit the "Kannada kings." In contrast to the Pala dynasty who championed Buddhism, the Sena dynasty were staunchly Hindu. They brought well-nigh a revival of Hinduism and cultivated Sanskrit literature in eastern India. They succeeded in bringing Bengal under i ruler during the 12th century. Vijaya Sena, second ruler of the dynasty, defeated the last Pala emperor, Madanapala, and established his reign formally. Ballala Sena, 3rd ruler of the dynasty, was a scholar and philosopher king. He is said to have invited Brahmins from both south India and n Republic of india to settle in Bengal, and assist the resurgence of Hinduism in his kingdom. He married a Western Chalukya princess and concentrated on building his empire eastwards, establishing his dominion over almost all of Bengal and big areas of lower Assam. Ballala Sena made Nabadwip his capital.[49]

The fourth Sena male monarch, Lakshmana Sena, son of Ballala Sena, was the greatest king of his line. He expanded the empire beyond Bengal into Bihar, Assam, Odisha and likely Varanasi. Lakshmana was later defeated past the nomadic Turkic Muslims and fled to eastern Bengal, where he ruled few more years. It is proposed by some Bengali authors that Jayadeva, the famous Sanskrit poet and author of Gita Govinda, was ane of the Pancharatnas or "five Gems" of the court of Lakshmana Sena.

Deva dynasty [edit]

The Deva dynasty was a Hindu dynasty of medieval Bengal that ruled over eastern Bengal later on the collapse of Sena Empire. The majuscule of this dynasty was Bikrampur in nowadays-twenty-four hours Munshiganj District of Bangladesh. The inscriptional evidences evidence that his kingdom was extended upwards to the present-day Comilla–Noakhali–Chittagong region. A later ruler of the dynasty Ariraja-Danuja-Madhava Dasharatha-Deva extended his kingdom to encompass much of E Bengal.[50] The Deva dynasty endured subsequently Muslim conquests but eventually died out.

Medieval and early on modern Bengal [edit]

Delhi Sultanate (1204–1352) [edit]

The Islamic conquest of Bengal began with the capture of Gauda from the Sena dynasty in 1204. Led by Bakhtiar Khilji, an army of several thousand horsemen from the Ghurids overwhelmed Bengali Hindu forces during a blitzkrieg campaign. After victory, the Delhi Sultanate maintained a stiff acuity on Bengal. Coins were inscribed in gold with the Sanskrit inscription Gaudiya Vijaye, significant "On the conquest of Gauda (Bengal)". Several governors of Delhi in Bengal attempted to suspension away and create an independent state. But the Delhi Sultanate managed to suppress Bengal'southward Muslim separatists for a century.[51] Gradually, eastern Bengal was captivated into Muslim rule past the 14th century, such equally through the Conquest of Sylhet. Sufis played a role in the Islamic absorption of Bengal. During the Tughluq dynasty, the taka was introduced every bit the regal currency.[52]

Small sultanates (1338–1352) [edit]

During the center of the 14th century, three break abroad sultanates emerged in the Delhi Sultanate's province of Bengal. These included a realm led past Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah (and afterward his son) in Sonargaon;[53] a realm led by Alauddin Ali Shah in Gauda (also chosen Lakhnauti);[54] and a realm led by Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah in Satgaon. The Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta visited Sonargaon during the reign of Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah. Ibn Battua also visited the Sufi leader Shah Jalal in Sylhet, who had earlier defeated the Hindu ruler Govinda.[55] [56]

Bengal Sultanate (1352–1576) [edit]

  • Adina Mosque

  • The Adina Mosque was India's largest mosque

  • Ruins of the prayer hall

  • The Sultan's upper floor gallery

  • Central mihrab

  • Exterior blueprint

Ilyas Shahi dynasty (1342–1414 and 1435–1487) [edit]

In 1352, Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah unified the three small-scale sultanates in Bengal into a single government. Ilyas Shah proclaimed himself as the "Shah of Bangalah". His son Sikandar Shah defeated the Sultan of Delhi and secured recognition of Bengal'south sovereignty afterwards the Bengal Sultanate-Delhi Sultanate War. The largest mosque in India was built in Bengal to project the new sultanate'due south imperial ambitions. The sultans advanced borough institutions and became more responsive and "native" in their outlook. Considerable architectural projects were undertaken which induced the influence of Farsi architecture, Arab compages and Byzantine compages in Bengal. The dynasty was a promoter of Indo-Western farsi civilisation. One of the sultans, Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah, kept a correspondence with the renowned Persian poet Hafez.

The early on Bengal Sultanate was notable for its diplomatic relationships. Embassies were sent to Ming China during the reign of Emperor Yongle. Mainland china responded by sending envoys, including the Treasure voyages; and mediating in regional disputes. There are as well records of the sultans' relations with Arab republic of egypt, Herat and some kingdoms in Africa.

The Ilyas Shahi Dynasty was interrupted in 1414 by a native uprising but was restored by Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah in 1433.

Hindu-Muslim usurpers (1414–1435) [edit]

The Ilyas Shahi reign was interrupted past an uprising orchestrated by the sultan's premier Raja Ganesha, a Hindu aristocrat. Ganesha installed his son Jadu to the throne but his son was influenced to catechumen to Islam[ citation needed ] past the court's Sufi clergy. Jadu took the title of Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah. His reign saw native Bengali elements promoted in the courtroom'due south civilisation. Bengali influences were incorporated into the kingdom'due south compages. The Bengal Sultanate-Jaunpur Sultanate War ended after mediation from Mainland china and the Timurids. Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah too pursued the Reconquest of Arakan to reinstall Arakan'south king to the throne after he had been deposed by Burmese forces.[ citation needed ]

Hussain Shahi dynasty (1494–1538) [edit]

Bengal Sultanate and the neighbouring kingdoms (1525 CE).

The Bengal Sultanate's territory reached its greatest extent nether Alauddin Hussain Shah, founder of the Hussain Shahi dynasty. The dynasty is regarded by several historians as a golden age in which a syncretic Bengali culture evolved including elements of Muslim and Hindu traditions. For instance, the Muslim sultan promoted the translation of Sanskrit epics similar the Ramayana into the Bengali language. The promotion of Bengali literature under the dynasty led to Bengali replacing the strong influence of Sanskrit in the region.

Suri suspension (1539–1564) [edit]

In the 16th century, the Mughal emperor Humayun was forced to take shelter in Persia as the conqueror Sher Shah Suri rampaged through the subcontinent. Bengal was brought under the control of the short-lived Suri Empire.

Karrani dynasty (1564–1576) [edit]

An Afghan dynasty was the final majestic business firm of the Bengal Sultanate. The capital of the dynasty was Sonargaon. The dynasty likewise ruled parts of Bihar and Orissa. Its eastern boundary was formed past the Brahmaputra River.

Baro-Bhuyans (1576–1610) [edit]

A confederation of twelve zamindar families resisted the expansion of the Mughal Empire during the 16th and 17th centuries. The zamindars included Muslims and Hindus. They were led by the Muslim Rajput primary Isa Khan. The Baro-Bhuyans defeated the Mughal navy during several engagements in Bengal's rivers. Eventually, the Mughals subdued the zamindar rebellion and brought all of Bengal under royal control.

Mughal flow (1574–1717) [edit]

A Mughal miniature showing emperor Akbar rejoicing upon the Mughal conquest of Bengal

The Mughal assimilation of Bengal began with the Battle of Ghaghra in 1529, in which the Mughal army was led by the first Mughal emperor Babur. The second Mughal emperor Humayun occupied the Bengali capital Gaur for half dozen months.[57] Post-obit the collapse of the Bengal Sultanate in the Boxing of Raj Mahal in 1576, the Bengal region was brought under Mughal control as the Bengal Subah.

Subedar menstruum (1574–1727) [edit]

Subedars were the Mughal viceroys in Bengal. The Bengal Subah was part of a larger prosperous empire and shaped by imperial policies of pluralistic government. The Mughals congenital the provincial capital in Dhaka in 1610 with fortifications, gardens, tombs, palaces and mosques. Dhaka was likewise named in honour of Emperor Jahangir as Jahangirnagar. Shaista Khan'south conquest of Chittagong in 1666 defeated the (Burmese) Kingdom of Arakan and reestablished Bengali command of the port city. The Chittagong Colina Tracts frontier region was fabricated a tributary state of Mughal Bengal and a treaty was signed with the Chakma Circumvolve in 1713.

Members of the purple family were often appointed to the position of Subedar. Man Singh I was the only Hindu subedar. One subedar was Prince Shah Shuja, who was the son of Emperor Shah Jahan. During the struggle for succession with his brothers Prince Aurangazeb, Prince Dara Shikoh and Prince Murad Baksh, Prince Shuja proclaimed himself every bit the Mughal Emperor in Bengal. He was somewhen defeated by the army of Aurangazeb.

Nawabs of Bengal (1717–1757) [edit]

By the 18th century, Mughal Bengal became a quasi-independent country under the nominal rule of the emperor in Delhi. The subedar was elevated to the condition of a hereditary Nawab Nazim. The Nawabs maintained de facto command of Bengal while minting coins in the name of the emperor in Delhi.

Nasiri dynasty (1717–1740) [edit]

The dynasty was founded by the beginning Nawab of Bengal Murshid Quli Khan. Its other rulers included Sarfaraz Khan and Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan.

Afsar dynasty (1740–1757) [edit]

The dynasty was founded by Alivardi Khan. His grandson and successor Siraj-ud-daulah was the last contained Nawab of Bengal due to his defeat to British forces at the Boxing of Plassey in 1757.

Bengal in the Mughal economic system [edit]

A woman in Dhaka clad in fine Bengali muslin, 18th century

Under the Mughal Empire, Bengal was an flush province with a Muslim majority and Hindu minority. According to economic historian Indrajit Ray, it was globally prominent in industries such every bit textile manufacturing and shipbuilding.[xi] The capital Dhaka had a population exceeding a million people, and with an estimated eighty,000 skilled textile weavers. It was an exporter of silk and cotton textiles, steel, saltpetre, and agricultural and industrial produce.[nine]

Bengali farmers and agriculturalists were quick to adapt to profitable new crops between 1600 and 1650. Bengali agriculturalists quickly learned techniques of mulberry cultivation and sericulture, establishing Bengal as a major silk-producing region of the globe.[58]

Nether Mughal rule, Bengal was a center of the worldwide muslin and silk trades. During the Mughal era, the most important centre of cotton fiber production was Bengal, particularly around its capital metropolis of Dhaka, leading to muslin being called "daka" in afar markets such every bit Central Asia.[59] Domestically, much of Republic of india depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton fiber textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such equally cotton wool textiles, silks and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, for case, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks.[lx] From Bengal, saltpetre was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Nihon and the Netherlands, and cotton fiber and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia and Japan.[61]

Bengal had a large shipbuilding industry. Indrajit Ray estimates shipbuilding output of Bengal during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at 223,250 tons annually, compared with 23,061 tons produced in thirteen colonies in N America from 1769 to 1771.[62]

Hindu states [edit]

  • Kantajew Temple

  • Front of the temple

  • Terracotta river scene

  • Terracotta horseman

  • Temple pillar

In that location were several Hindu states established in and around Bengal during the medieval and early mod periods. These kingdoms contributed a lot to the economic and cultural mural of Bengal. Extensive country reclamation in forested and marshy areas were carried out and intrastate trade as well as commerce were highly encouraged. These kingdoms also helped innovate new music, painting, dancing and sculpture into Bengali fine art-forms as well as many temples were synthetic during this flow. Militarily, they served as bulwarks against Portuguese and Burmese attacks. These states includes the principalities of Maharaja Pratap Aditya of Jessore, Raja Sitaram Ray of Burdwan, Raja Krishnachandra Roy of Nadia Raj and Kingdom of Mallabhum. The Kingdom of Bhurshut was a medieval Hindu kingdom spread across what is at present Howrah and Hooghly in the Indian state of West Bengal. Maharaja Rudranarayan consolidated the dynasty and expanded the kingdom and converted it into ane of the most powerful Hindu kingdom of the time. His wife Maharani Bhavashankari defeated the Pathan resurgence in Bengal[63] and her reign brought ability, prosperity and grandeur to Bhurishrestha Kingdom. Their son, Maharaja Pratapnarayan, patronised literature and art, merchandise & commerce, too as welfare of his subjects. Afterwards, Maharaja Naranarayan maintained the integrity and sovereignty of the kingdom by diplomatically averting the occupation of the kingdom by the Mughal forces. His son, Maharaja Lakshminarayan, failed to maintain the sovereignty of the kingdom due to sabotage from within. The Koch Bihar Kingdom in the northern Bengal, flourished during the period of 16th and the 17th centuries also equally weathered the Mughals and survived till the appearance of the British.[64] The Burdwan Raj founded by Maharaja Sangam Rai Kapoor was a zamindari estate that flourished from nigh 1657 to 1955, first under the Mughals and then nether the British in the province of Bengal in British-India. At the peak of its prosperity in the 18th century, the estate extended to effectually v,000 square miles (xiii,000 km2) of territory[65] and even up to the early 20th century paid an annual revenue to the government in excess of iii,300,000 rupees.

Immigration [edit]

Bengal received many immigrants from Westward Asia, Central Asia, the Horn of Africa and North India during the sultanate and Mughal periods. Many came as refugees due to the Mongol invasions and conquests. Others found Bengal's fertile land suitable for economic production and commerce. The Arabs were among the earliest settlers, particularly in littoral areas.[66] Persians settled in Bengal to become clerics, missionaries, lawyers, teachers, soldiers, administrators and poets.[67] An Armenian community from the Safavid Empire migrated to the region.[68] There were likewise many Turkic immigrants.[69] The Portuguese were the earliest Europeans to settle in Bengal.[70]

Many Arakanese escaped persecution in Burma and settled in southern Bengal during the 18th century.[71] Many Manipuris settled in eastern Bengal during the 18th century afterwards fleeing from conflict-ridden areas in Assam.[72] The Marwari community continues to be influential in West Bengal'southward economic sectors. The Marwaris migrated from Rajasthan in western India. In Bangladesh, a Nizari Ismaili community with diverse origins continues to play a significant part in economic sectors.

Maratha invasions [edit]

Effectually the early on 18th century, the Maratha Empire led invasions of Bengal. The leader of the expedition was Maharaja Raghuji of Nagpur. Raghoji was able to annexe Odisha and parts of Bengal permanently every bit he successfully exploited the chaotic conditions prevailing in the region subsequently the death of their Governor Murshid Quli Khan in 1727.[73]

During their occupation, the Marathas perpetrated a massacre against the local population,[74] killing shut to 400,000 people in western Bengal and Bihar.[75] This devastated Bengal'due south economic system, equally many of the people killed in the Maratha raids included merchants, textile weavers,[75] silk winders, and mulberry cultivators.[76] The Cossimbazar factory reported in 1742, for example, that the Marathas burnt downward many of the houses where silk piece goods were made, along with weavers' looms.[75] The Maratha invasions of Bengal desperately affected the economy of Bengal and it is estimated that 400,000 Bengali Muslims were butchered brutally by the Hindu Maratha bargis.[77] The genocide has been considered to be among the deadliest massacres in Indian history.[78]

Colonial Bengal [edit]

European ships in Chittagong, 1702

Portuguese Chittagong (1528–1666) [edit]

The get-go European colonial settlement in Bengal was the Portuguese settlement in Chittagong. The settlement was established after the Bengal Sultanate granted permission to embassies from Portuguese India for the cosmos of a trading post. The Portuguese settlers in Chittagong included bureaucrats, merchants, soldiers, sailors, missionaries, slave traders and pirates. They controlled the port of Chittagong and forced all merchant ships to acquire a Portuguese trade licence. The Roman Cosmic Church was established in Bengal by the Portuguese in Chittagong, when the outset Vicar Apostolic was appointed in the port city.

The Portuguese somewhen came under the protection of the Kingdom of Mrauk U as the Bengal Sultanate lost command of the Chittagong region. In 1666, the Mughal conquest of Chittagong resulted in the expulsion of Portuguese and Arakanese forces in the port city. The Portuguese as well migrated to other parts of Bengal, including Bandel and Dhaka.

Dutch settlements (1610–1824) [edit]

Flag of the Dutch East Republic of india Visitor

The Dutch Eastward India Company operated a directorate in Bengal for nearly two centuries. The directorate afterward became a colony of the Dutch Empire in 1725. Dutch territories in Bengal were ceded to Britain past the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. Dutch settlements in Bengal included the Dutch settlement in Rajshahi, the master Dutch port in Baliapal, too as factories in Chhapra (saltpetre), Dhaka (muslin), Balasore, Patna, Cossimbazar, Malda, Mirzapur, Murshidabad, Rajmahal and Sherpur.

Bengal one time deemed for xl% of Dutch imports from Asia, particularly in terms of silk and muslin goods.[79]

Early English settlements (1600s) [edit]

The Eastward Republic of india Company established its first settlements in Bengal effectually Hooghly during the 1630s.[80] It received an official permission to trade from Mughal viceroy Shah Shuja in 1651.[80] In 1689, the company attempted to take Chittagong and make it the headquarters of their Bengal trade but the English expedition establish the port heavily defended.[81] [82] In 1696, the English language built Fort William on the banking company of the Hooghly River. Fort William served as the British headquarters in Republic of india for centuries. The surface area effectually Fort William eventually grew into the metropolis of Calcutta. English factories were established throughout Bengal. The port in Fort William became one of the almost important British naval bases in Asia from where expeditions were sent to People's republic of china and Southeast Asia. The English language began to be used for commerce and government in Bengal.[lxxx]

French settlements (1692–1952) [edit]

The French establishments in Bharat included colonies and factories in Bengal. After permission from Mughal viceroy Shaista Khan in 1692, the French fix up a settlement in Chandernagore. The French besides had a large presence in Dhaka, where a neighbourhood called Farashganj developed in the former metropolis. One of the notable properties of the French included the land of the Ahsan Manzil, where the French administrative building was located. The property was sold to Bengali aristocrats, who exchanged the belongings several times until information technology became the property of the Dhaka Nawab Family. The French congenital a garden in Tejgaon. Cossimbazar and Balasore also hosted French factories.[83]

The French took the side of Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah during the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Eventually, the French presence in Bengal was only restricted to the colony of Chandernagore, which was administered by the governor in Pondicherry. Afterward India's independence in 1947, a plebiscite in Chandernagore gave a mandate to end colonial rule. The French transferred sovereignty in 1952. In 1955, Chandernagore became part of the Indian state of West Bengal.

Danish settlements (1625–1845) [edit]

The get-go settlement of the Danish Eastward India Company in Bengal was established in Pipli in 1625. The Danish company afterward gained permission from Nawab Alivardi Khan to institute a trading mail service in Serampore in 1755. The first representative of the Danish crown was appointed in 1770. The town was named Fredericknagore. The Danish also operated colonies on the Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. Territories in Bengal and the Bay of Bengal were part of Danish India until 1845, when Danish colonies were ceded to Britain.

Austrian settlement (1700s) [edit]

The Ostend Company of the Austrian Empire operated a settlement in Bankipur, Bengal during the 18th century.

British East Bharat Company (1757–1858) [edit]

When the East India Company began strengthening the defences at Fort William (Calcutta), the Nawab, Siraj Ud Daulah, at the encouragement of the French, attacked. Nether the leadership of Robert Clive, British troops and their local allies captured Chandernagore in March 1757 and seriously defeated the Nawab on 23 June 1757 at the Battle of Plassey, when the Nawab's soldiers betrayed him. The Nawab was assassinated in Murshidabad, and the British installed their ain Nawab for Bengal and extended their direct control in the south. Chandernagore was restored to the French in 1763. The Bengalis attempted to regain their territories in 1765 in brotherhood with the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam Ii, but were defeated once more at the Battle of Buxar (1765). The centre of Indian culture and merchandise shifted from Delhi to Calcutta when the Mughal Empire brutal.

Capital amassed from Bengal past the E India Visitor was invested in various industries such as fabric manufacturing in Bang-up Britain during the initial stages of the Industrial Revolution.[14] [15] [16] [17] Visitor policies in Bengal also led to the deindustrialization of the Bengali textile industry during Company rule.[xiv] [15] [16]

During the menstruum of Company rule, a devastating dearth occurred 1770, which killed an estimated x million. The famine devastated the region as well as the economy of the Due east India Company, forcing them to rely on subsidies from the British government, an act which would contribute to the American Revolution.[84]

British crown rule (1858–1947) [edit]

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 replaced rule by the Visitor with the directly control of Bengal past the British Crown. Fort William continued to be the upper-case letter of British-held territories in Bharat. The Governor of Bengal was concurrently the Governor-General of India for many years. In 1877, when Victoria took the championship of "Empress of India", the British declared Calcutta the upper-case letter of the British Raj. The colonial upper-case letter developed in Calcutta'south municipality, which served as the capital of Bharat for decades. A centre of rice cultivation and the earth's master source of jute fibre; Bengal was one of India'southward largest industrial centers. From the 1850s, industry was centered around the capital letter Calcutta. The railway was created in Britain in 1825. It was introduced in the U.s. in 1833, Germany in 1835, Italy in 1839, French republic in 1844 and Kingdom of spain in 1848. The British authorities introduced the railway to Bengal in 1854.[85] Several track companies were established in Bengal during the 19th century, including the Eastern Bengal Railway and Assam Bengal Railway. The largest seaport in British Bengal was the Port of Calcutta, one of the busiest ports in the former British Empire. The Calcutta Stock Exchange was established in 1908. Other ports in Bengal included the Port of Narayanganj, the Port of Chittagong and the Port of Dhaka. Bengali ports were frequently free merchandise ports which welcomed ships from beyond the world. There was extensive shipping with British Burma. Two universities were established in Bengal during British rule, including the University of Calcutta and the University of Dacca. Numerous colleges and schools were established in each commune. Most of the Bengali population nevertheless remained dependent on agriculture, and despite Bengali social and political leaders playing a major role in Indian political and intellectual activity, the province included some very undeveloped districts.

At its greatest extent, the Bengal Presidency covered north and north-east India, as well as Burma, Singapore and Penang

The Bengal Presidency had the highest gross domestic product in British Republic of india.[86] Bengal hosted the most advanced cultural centers in British Republic of india.[87] A cosmopolitan, eclectic cultural atmosphere took shape. There were many anglophiles, including the Naib Nazim of Dhaka. A Portuguese missionary published the first volume on Bengali grammar. A Hindu scholar produced a Bengali translation of the Quran. However, Bengalis were likewise divided by faith due to the political situation in the residual of Bharat.

Bengal renaissance [edit]

Rabindranath Tagore's influence on Bengali and Indian literature has been compared to Shakespeare's influence in the English-speaking earth. Tagore was the first Asian Nobel laureate in 1913

The Bengal renaissance refers to a social reform move during the 19th and early on 20th centuries in the region of Bengal in undivided Bharat during the period of British rule. Historian Nitish Sengupta describes it equally having started with reformer and humanitarian Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833), and ended with Asia's beginning Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941).[88] This flowering of religious and social reformers, scholars, and writers is described by historian David Kopf as "1 of the most creative periods in Indian history".[89]

Bengal Legislative Quango (1862–1947) [edit]

The Bengal Legislative Council was the main code body in the province. It was created by the Indian Councils Act 1861 and reformed under the Indian Councils Human activity 1892, the Indian Councils Act 1909, the Government of India Deed 1919 and the Authorities of India Act 1935. Initially an informational council with mostly European members, native Bengali representation gradually increased in the early 20th-century. In 1935, it became the upper house of the provincial legislature alongside the lower house in the Bengal Legislative Assembly. The Governor of Bengal, who was meantime the Governor-Full general of Republic of india, frequently sat on the council.

Eastern Bengal and Assam (1905–1912) [edit]

The All Bharat Muhammadan Educational Conference in Dacca, 1906

The British government argued that Bengal, beingness India'due south most populous province, was too large and difficult to govern. Bengal was divided by the British rulers for administrative purposes in 1905 into an overwhelmingly Hindu westward (including present-mean solar day Bihar and Odisha) and a predominantly Muslim eastward (including Assam). Hindu – Muslim conflict became stronger through this partition. While Hindu Indians disagreed with the partition saying it was a way of dividing a Bengal which is united by language and history, Muslims supported information technology past saying it was a large step frontward for Muslim social club where Muslims will exist bulk and they tin freely practice their faith as well as their culture. Simply owing to stiff Hindu agitation, the British reunited East and West Bengal in 1912, and made Bihar and Orissa a carve up province

The short lived province of Eastern Bengal and Assam provided impetus to a growing movement for self-decision amidst British-Indian Muslim subjects. The All India Muslim League was created during a conference on liberal education hosted by the Nawab of Dhaka in Eastern Bengal and Assam. The Eastern Bengal and Assam Legislative Council was the lawmaking body of the province.

Rebel activities [edit]

Bengal played a major office in the Indian independence motility (including the Pakistan movement), in which revolutionary groups such as Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar were ascendant. Bengalis also played a notable office in the Indian independence movement. Many of the early proponents of independence, and subsequent leaders in movement were Bengalis. Some notable liberty fighters from Bengal were Chittaranjan Das, Surendranath Banerjee, Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, Prafulla Chaki, Bagha Jatin, Khudiram Bose, Surya Sen, Binoy–Badal–Dinesh, Sarojini Naidu, Batukeshwar Dutt, Aurobindo Ghosh, Rashbehari Bose, Thou.North. Roy, Muzaffar Ahmed and many more. Some of these leaders, such as Netaji, did non subscribe to the view that non-violent ceremonious disobedience was the only way to achieve Indian Independence, and allied with Nippon to fight against the British. During the Second World War Netaji escaped to Frg from business firm arrest in India and at that place he founded the Indian Legion an army to fight against the British Government, only the turning of the war compelled him to come to South-Eastern asia and at that place he became the co-founder and leader of the Indian National Ground forces (singled-out from the regular army of British Republic of india) that challenged British forces in several parts of India. He was also the head of state of a parallel government named 'The Provisional Government of Free India' or Arzi Hukumat-eastward-Azad Hind, that was recognised and supported by the Axis powers. Bengal was likewise the fostering ground for several prominent revolutionary organisations. A large number of Bengalis died in the independence struggle and many were exiled in Cellular Jail, the much dreaded prison house located in Andaman.

Bengal Legislative Assembly (1937–1947) [edit]

The Bengal Legislative Associates was British India'due south largest legislature. It was created past the Regime of India Act 1935 as the lower house of the provincial parliament. The assembly was elected on the basis of the and so-called "split up electorate" system created by the Communal Award. Seats were reserved for dissimilar religious, social and professional person communities. Major parties in the assembly included the All India Muslim League, the Farmers and Tenants Party, the Indian National Congress, the Swaraj Party and the Hindu Mahasabha. The Prime Minister of Bengal was a member of the associates.

Second World War [edit]

Bengal was used as a base of operations for Allied Forces during World War II. Bengal was strategically important during the Burma Campaign and Allied assistance to the Republic of Cathay to fight off the Japanese invasions. The Regal Japanese Air Force bombed Chittagong in April and May 1942; and Calcutta in Dec 1942. The Japanese aborted a planned invasion of Bengal from Burma. The Ledo Route was constructed between Bengal and China through Allied controlled areas in northern Burma to supply the forces led by Chiang Kai Shek. Units of the United States Armed Forces were stationed in Chittagong Airfield during the Burma Campaign 1944-1945.[xc] Commonwealth forces included troops from Britain, India, Australia and New Zealand.

The Bengal famine of 1943 occurred during World War II and caused the expiry of an estimated 2.i–iii million people.

Partitioning of Bengal (1947) [edit]

The sectionalisation of Bengal in 1947 left a deep impact on the people of Bengal. The breakup of Hindu-Muslim unity caused the All India Muslim League to demand the partition of Bharat in line with the Lahore Resolution, which called for Bengal to be included in a Muslim-majority homeland. Hindu nationalists in Bengal were determined to make Hindu-majority districts a function of the Indian dominion. A majority of members in the Bengal Legislative Associates voted to go along Bengal undivided. The Prime number Minister of Bengal, supported by Hindu and Muslim politicians, proposed a United Bengal every bit a sovereign state. However, the Indian National Congress and the Hindu Mahasabha on one side and the Muslim League on the other forced the British viceroy Earl Mountbatten to partition Bengal along religious lines. As a result, Bengal was divided into the land of West Bengal of Republic of india and the province of E Bengal under Pakistan, renamed East Pakistan in 1955. The Sylhet region in Assam joined East Bengal afterward a referendum on 6 July 1947.

Post-partition and contemporary era [edit]

Indian Bengal [edit]

Bangladesh [edit]

Encounter as well [edit]

  • List of rulers of Bengal
  • Bengalis

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  89. ^ Kopf, David (December 1994). "Amiya P. Sen. Hindu Revivalism in Bengal 1872". American Historical Review (Book review). 99 (5): 1741–1742. doi:ten.2307/2168519. JSTOR 2168519.
  90. ^ Maurer, Maurer. Air Forcefulness Combat Units of Earth War II. Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Function of Air Force History, 1983. ISBN 0-89201-092-4

Further reading [edit]

  • Salim, Gulam Hussain; tr. from Farsi; Abdus Salam (1902). Riyazu-s-Salatin: History of Bengal. Asiatic Society, Baptist Mission Press.
  • Majumdar, R. C. The History of Bengal ISBN 81-7646-237-three
  • Amiya Sen (1993). Hindu Revivalism in Bengal 1872–1905: Some Essays in Estimation. Oxford University Printing.
  • Abdul Momin Chowdhury (1967) Dynastic History of Bengal, c. 750–1200 A.D, Dacca: The Asiatic Society of Pakistan, 1967, Pages: 310, ASIN: B0006FFATA
  • Iftekhar Iqbal (2010) The Bengal Delta: Ecology, Land and Social Change, 1840–1943, Cambridge Regal and Post-Colonial Studies, Palgrave Macmillan, Pages: 288, ISBN 0230231837
  • G. Mufakharul Islam (edited) (2004) Socio-Economic History of Bangladesh: essays in memory of Professor Shafiqur Rahman, 1st Edition, Asiatic Order of Bangladesh, OCLC 156800811
  • M. Mufakharul Islam (2007), Bengal Agriculture 1920–1946: A Quantitative Study, Cambridge Due south Asian Studies, Cambridge University Press, Pages: 300, ISBN 0521049857
  • Meghna Guhathakurta & Willem van Schendel (Edited) (2013) The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics (The World Readers), Duke University Press Books, Pages: 568, ISBN 0822353040
  • Sirajul Islam (edited) (1997) History of People's republic of bangladesh 1704–1971(Three Volumes: Vol ane: Political History, Vol 2: Economic History Vol 3: Social and Cultural History), 2d Edition (Revised New Edition), The Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, Pages: 1846, ISBN 9845123376
  • Sirajul Islam (Chief Editor) (2003) Banglapedia: A National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh.(10 Vols. Set), (written past 1300 scholars & 22 editors) The Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, Pages: 4840, ISBN 9843205855
  • Samares Kar: The Millennia Long Migration into Bengal: Rich Genetic Cloth and Enormous Promise in the Confront of Chaos, Corruption, and Criminalization. In: Spaces & Flows: An International Journal of Urban & Extra Urban Studies. Vol. 2 Issue 2, 2012, S. 129–143 (Fulltext encounter ResearchGate Network).
  • Dr. Sujit Ghosh, (2016) Colonial Economy in North Bengal: 1833–1933, Kolkata: Paschimbanga Anchalik Itihas O Loksanskriti Charcha Kendra, ISBN 978-81-926316-six-0

External links [edit]

  • History of Bengal

caseancestright.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Bengal

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